Socio-ecological trade-offs in ecosystem services in the Himalayas

Socio-ecological trade-offs in ecosystem services in the Himalayas

Nature provides multiple benefits to human well-being, called ecosystem services, but not all services are available in the same space and time. Trade-offs in ecosystem services are caused by the biophysical constraints of the land and landscape on one hand and increasing yet varying demands from people and society on the other. To this end, this PhD research was aimed to assess the trade-offs in ecosystem services, from both social and ecological perspectives, examining the causes of trade-offs and reviewing policy responses to the ecosystem dynamics. This PhD research was based on a systematic literature review, household surveys, acquisition and processing of satellite images and global datasets, critical review of national projects and programs, and chronological policy analysis. Qualitative data analyses were done through inductive and deductive approaches whereas quantitative data were analysed using ArcGIS, Google Earth Engine, and R. Biophysical data, including land cover products, were accessed using Google Earth Engine and analysed through ArcGIS, using Spatial Analyst tools. R has been used to analyse both social and biophysical data, including the regression estimates and statistical significance tests, as well as for the visualization of the data findings. Biophysical assessment showed that crop production has trade-offs with soil conservation while the social survey depicted that crop production has trade-offs relationship with timber production and carbon sequestration. Production possibility frontiers depicted an increase in crop production at the expense of timber, carbon, soil, water, and habitat quality. Local people tend to put more utility values to water yield and crop production while carbon sequestration and habitat quality were among the least valued ecosystem services. Current supplies of timber products, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality are adequate to meet the perceived demands of local people while there is a substantial gap between the supply and demand of other ecosystem services. Drivers of the changes in ecosystems are dynamic and non-linear while the policy responses were found to be steady and incremental, which are insufficient to address the drivers of ecosystem dynamics. Improved agronomic practices, agroforestry and climate actions, and integrated landscape management are the potential alternatives to minimize trade-offs in ecosystem services. Trade-offs in ecosystem services are site specific and depend on socio-demographic conditions. Drawing from this research, I argue that people- and place-based ecosystem management, grounded in the framework of management authorship, is crucial for the sustainable management of ecosystem services in the Himalayas.

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