C2L3-Fusion: An Integrated 3D Object Detection Method for Autonomous Vehicles

Article

Ngo, Thanh Binh, Ngo, Long, Phi, Anh Vu, Nguyen, Trung Thị Hoa Trang, Nguyen, Andy, Brown, Jason and Perera, Asanka. 2025. "C2L3-Fusion: An Integrated 3D Object Detection Method for Autonomous Vehicles." Sensors. 25 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/s25092688
Article Title

C2L3-Fusion: An Integrated 3D Object Detection Method for Autonomous Vehicles

ERA Journal ID34304
Article CategoryArticle
AuthorsNgo, Thanh Binh, Ngo, Long, Phi, Anh Vu, Nguyen, Trung Thị Hoa Trang, Nguyen, Andy, Brown, Jason and Perera, Asanka
Journal TitleSensors
Journal Citation25 (9)
Article Number2688
Number of Pages16
Year2025
PublisherMDPI AG
Place of PublicationSwitzerland
ISSN1424-8220
1424-8239
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.3390/s25092688
Web Address (URL)https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/25/9/2688
Abstract

Accurate 3D object detection is crucial for autonomous vehicles (AVs) to navigate safely in complex environments. This paper introduces a novel fusion framework that integrates Camera image-based 2D object detection using YOLOv8 and LiDAR data-based 3D object detection using PointPillars, hence named C2L3-Fusion. Unlike conventional fusion approaches, which often struggle with feature misalignment, C2L3-Fusion enhances spatial consistency and multi-level feature aggregation, significantly improving detection accuracy. Our method outperforms state-of-the-art approaches such as YoPi-CLOCs Fusion Network, standalone YOLOv8, and standalone PointPillars, achieving mean Average Precision (mAP) scores of 89.91% (easy), 79.26% (moderate), and 78.01% (hard) on the KITTI dataset. Successfully implemented on the Nvidia Jetson AGX Xavier embedded platform, C2L3-Fusion maintains real-time performance while enhancing robustness, making it highly suitable for self-driving vehicles. This paper details the methodology, mathematical formulations, algorithmic advancements, and real-world testing of C2L3-Fusion, offering a comprehensive solution for 3D object detection in autonomous navigation.

Keywordsdeep learning; AI; autonomous vehicle; 3D detection; 2D detection; C2L3-Fusion
Contains Sensitive ContentDoes not contain sensitive content
ANZSRC Field of Research 20204007. Control engineering, mechatronics and robotics
Byline AffiliationsUniversity of Transport and Communications, Vietnam
Mobifone Digital Services, Vietnam
Michigan State University, United States
School of Engineering
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Monavari, B., Chan, T. H. T., Nguyen, A. and Thambiratnam, D. P.. 2018. "Time-series coefficient-based deterioration detection algorithm." Chan, Tommy and Mahini, Saeed (ed.) 8th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure (SHMII 2017): Structural Health Monitoring in Real-World Application. Brisbane, Australia 05 - 08 Dec 2017 Red Hook, NY, USA.
Damage quantification in beam-like structures from modal flexibility change
Le, N. T., Thambiratnam, D. P., Chan, T. H. T and Nguyen, A.. 2018. "Damage quantification in beam-like structures from modal flexibility change." Chan, Tommy and Mahini, Saeed (ed.) 8th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure (SHMII 2017): Structural Health Monitoring in Real-World Application. Brisbane, Australia 05 - 08 Dec 2017 Red Hook, NY, USA.
Detection and Localisation of Life Signs from the Air Using Image Registration and Spatio-Temporal Filtering
Perera, Asanka G, Khanam, Fatema-Tuz-Zohra, Al-Naji, Ali and Chahl, Javaan. 2020. "Detection and Localisation of Life Signs from the Air Using Image Registration and Spatio-Temporal Filtering." Remote Sensing. 12 (3). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030577
A multiviewpoint outdoor dataset for human action recognition
Perera, Asanka G., Law, Yee Wei, Ogunwa, Titilayo T and Chahl, Javaan. 2020. "A multiviewpoint outdoor dataset for human action recognition." IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems. 50 (5), pp. 405-413. https://doi.org/10.1109/THMS.2020.2971958
Damage detection and quantification in deck type arch bridges using vibration based methods and artificial neural networks
Jayasundara, N., Thambiratnam, D. P., Chan, T. H. T. and Nguyen, A.. 2020. "Damage detection and quantification in deck type arch bridges using vibration based methods and artificial neural networks." Engineering Failure Analysis. 109, pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.104265
Toward efficacy of piecewise polynomial truncated singular value decomposition algorithm in moving force identification
Chen, Zhen, Qin, Lifeng, Zhao, Shunbo, Chan, Tommy H. T. and Nguyen, Andy. 2019. "Toward efficacy of piecewise polynomial truncated singular value decomposition algorithm in moving force identification." Advances in Structural Engineering: an international journal. 22 (12), pp. 2687-2698. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433219849817
Damage assessment of concrete gravity dams using vibration characteristics
Le, N. T., Thambiratnam, D. P., Chan, T. H. T., Nguyen, A. and Huynh, B. K .T.. 2016. "Damage assessment of concrete gravity dams using vibration characteristics." Zingoni, Alphose (ed.) 6th International Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation: Insights and Innovations in Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation (SEMC 2016). Cape Town, South Africa 05 - 07 Sep 2016 London, United Kingdom.
Useful tips for automated model updating of medium rise buildings
Kodikara, K. A. T. L, Chan, T. H. T., Nguyen, A. and Thambiratnam, D. P.. 2017. "Useful tips for automated model updating of medium rise buildings." Hao, Hong and Zhang, Chunwei (ed.) 24th Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and Materials (ACMSM24). Perth, Australia 06 - 09 Dec 2016 United Kingdom.
Output-only modal testing and monitoring of civil engineering structures: instrumentation and test management
Nguyen, A., Chan, T. H. T., Thambiratnam, D. P., Kodikara, K. T. L., Le, N. T. and Jamali, S.. 2018. "Output-only modal testing and monitoring of civil engineering structures: instrumentation and test management." Chan, Tommy and Mahini, Saeed (ed.) 8th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure (SHMII 2017): Structural Health Monitoring in Real-World Application. Brisbane, Australia 05 - 08 Dec 2017 Red Hook, NY, USA.
Vibration-based dual-criteria approach for damage detection in arch bridges
Jayasundara, Nirmani, Thambiratnam, David, Chan, Tommy and Nguyen, Andy. 2019. "Vibration-based dual-criteria approach for damage detection in arch bridges." Structural Health Monitoring: an international journal. 18 (5-6), pp. 2004-2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921718810011
Special issue: real world application of SHM in Australia
Nguyen, Andy, Chan, Tommy H. T. and Zhu, Xinqun. 2019. "Special issue: real world application of SHM in Australia." Structural Health Monitoring: an international journal. 18 (1), pp. 3-4. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921718823980
Identification of vehicle axle loads from bridge responses using preconditioned least square QR-factorization algorithm
Chen, Zhen, Chan, Tommy H.T., Nguyen, Andy and Yu, Ling. 2019. "Identification of vehicle axle loads from bridge responses using preconditioned least square QR-factorization algorithm." Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing. 128, pp. 479-496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2019.03.043
A new method for locating and quantifying damage in beams from static deflection changes
Le, N. T., Thambiratnam, D. P., Nguyen, A. and Chan, T. H. T. 2019. "A new method for locating and quantifying damage in beams from static deflection changes." Engineering Structures. 180, pp. 779-792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.11.071
UAV-GESTURE: A Dataset for UAV Control and Gesture Recognition
Perera, Asanka G., Law, Yee Wei and Chahl, Javaan. 2019. "UAV-GESTURE: A Dataset for UAV Control and Gesture Recognition." UAVision workshop, ECCV 2018. Germany. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11012-3_9
The sixth visual object tracking vot2018 challenge results
Kristan, Matej, Leonardis, Ales, Matas, Jiří, Felsberg, Michael, Pflugfelder, Roman, Zajc, Luka Čehovin, Vojír̃, Tomáš, Bhat, Goutam, Lukežič, Alan, Eldesokey, Abdelrahman, Fernández, Gustavo, García-Martín, Álvaro, Iglesias-Arias, Álvaro, Alatan, A. Aydin, González-García, Abel, Petrosino, Alfredo, Memarmoghadam, Alireza, Vedaldi, Andrea, Muhič, Andrej, ..., He, Zhiqun. 2019. "The sixth visual object tracking vot2018 challenge results." European Conference on Computer Vision 2018 Workshops. Munich, Germany 09 - 14 Sep 2018 Germany. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11009-3_1
Visdrone-sot2018: The vision meets drone single-object tracking challenge results
Wen, Longyin, Zhu, Pengfei, Du, Dawei, Bian, Xiao, Ling, Haibin, Hu, Qinghua, Liu, Chenfeng, Cheng, Hao, Liu, Xiaoyu, Ma, Wenya, Nie, Qinqin, Wu, Haotian, Wang, Lianjie, Perera, Asanka G., Zhang, Baochang, Heo, Byeongho, Liu, Chunlei, Li, Dongdong, Michail, Emmanouil, ..., He, Zhiqun. 2019. "Visdrone-sot2018: The vision meets drone single-object tracking challenge results." European Conference on Computer Vision 2018 Workshops. Munich, Germany 09 - 14 Sep 2018 Germany. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11021-5_28
Cross-correlation-based robust object tracking in aerial videos
Perera, Asanka G, Law, Yee Wei and Chahl, Javaan. 2019. "Cross-correlation-based robust object tracking in aerial videos." 18th Australian International Aerospace Congress (AIAC18). Melbourne, Australia 24 - 26 Feb 2019 Australia .
Life Signs Detector Using a Drone in Disaster Zones
Al-Naji, Ali, Perera, Asanka G., Mohammed, Saleem Latteef and Chahl, Javaan. 2019. "Life Signs Detector Using a Drone in Disaster Zones." Remote Sensing. 11 (20). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11202441
Drone-Action: An Outdoor Recorded Drone Video Dataset for Action Recognition
Perera, Asanka G., Law, Yee Wei and Chahl, Javaan. 2019. "Drone-Action: An Outdoor Recorded Drone Video Dataset for Action Recognition." Drones. 3 (4). https://doi.org/10.3390/drones3040082
Model updating of real structures with ambient vibration data
Kodikara, K. A. T. L., Chan, T. H. T., Nguyen, T. and Thambiratnam, D. P.. 2016. "Model updating of real structures with ambient vibration data." Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring. 6 (3), pp. 329-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-016-0178-3
Development of a cost-effective and flexible vibration DAQ system for long-term continuous structural health monitoring
Nguyen, Theanh, Chan, Tommy H. T., Thambiratnam, David P. and King, Les. 2015. "Development of a cost-effective and flexible vibration DAQ system for long-term continuous structural health monitoring." Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing. 64-65, pp. 313-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.04.003
Synergic identification of prestress force and moving load on prestressed concrete beam based on virtual distortion method
Xiang, Ziru, Chan, Tommy H. T., Thambiratnam, David P. and Nguyen, Theanh. 2016. "Synergic identification of prestress force and moving load on prestressed concrete beam based on virtual distortion method." Smart Structures and Systems. 17 (6), pp. 917-933. https://doi.org/10.12989/sss.2016.17.6.917
Structural Deterioration Detection Using Enhanced Autoregressive Residuals
Monavari, Benyamin, Chan, Tommy H. T., Nguyen, Andy and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2018. "Structural Deterioration Detection Using Enhanced Autoregressive Residuals." International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics. 18 (12), pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219455418501602
Model updating incorporating measured response uncertainties and confidence levels of tuning parameters
Kodikara, K.A. Tharindu L., Chan, Tommy H.T., Nguyen, Andy and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2016. "Model updating incorporating measured response uncertainties and confidence levels of tuning parameters." International Journal of Lifecycle Performance Engineering. 2 (1/2), pp. 61-78. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLCPE.2016.082712
Prestress evaluation in prestressed concrete plate-like structures
Pathirage, Thisara S., Chan, Tommy H. T., Thambiratnam, David P., Nguyen, Andy and Moragaspitiya, H. N. P.. 2018. "Prestress evaluation in prestressed concrete plate-like structures." International Journal of Lifecycle Performance Engineering. 2 (3/4), pp. 127-143. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLCPE.2018.094855
Damage identification in a complex truss structure using modal characteristics correlation method and sensitivity-weighted search space
Nguyen, Khac-Duy, Chan, Tommy H. T., Thambiratnam, David P. and Nguyen, Andy. 2019. "Damage identification in a complex truss structure using modal characteristics correlation method and sensitivity-weighted search space." Structural Health Monitoring: an international journal. 18 (1), pp. 49-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921718809471
Reliability-based load carrying capacity assessment of bridges using structural health monitoring and nonlinear analysis
Jamali, Shojaeddin, Chan, Tommy H. T., Nguyen, Andy and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2019. "Reliability-based load carrying capacity assessment of bridges using structural health monitoring and nonlinear analysis." Structural Health Monitoring: an international journal. 18 (1), pp. 20-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921718808462
Deterioration assessment of buildings using an improved hybrid model updating approach and long-term health monitoring data
Nguyen, Andy, Kodikara, K. A. Tharindu Lakshitha, Chan, Tommy H. T. and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2019. "Deterioration assessment of buildings using an improved hybrid model updating approach and long-term health monitoring data." Structural Health Monitoring: an international journal. 18 (1), pp. 5-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921718799984
Vibration characteristics and damage detection in a suspension bridge
Wickramasinghe, Wasanthi R., Thambiratnam, David P., Chan, Tommy H. T. and Nguyen, Theanh. 2016. "Vibration characteristics and damage detection in a suspension bridge." Journal of Sound and Vibration. 375, pp. 254-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2016.04.025
Capacity Estimation of Beam-Like Structures Using Substructural Method
Jamali, Shojaeddin, Chan, Tommy H. T., Koo, Ki-Young, Nguyen, Andy and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2018. "Capacity Estimation of Beam-Like Structures Using Substructural Method." International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics. 18 (12), pp. 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219455418501626
Moving force identification based on modified preconditioned conjugate gradient method
Chen, Zhen, Chan, Tommy H. T. and Nguyen, Andy. 2018. "Moving force identification based on modified preconditioned conjugate gradient method." Journal of Sound and Vibration. 423, pp. 100-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2017.11.034
Method development of damage detection in asymmetric buildings
Wang, Yi, Thambiratnam, David P., Chan, Tommy H.T. and Nguyen, Andy. 2018. "Method development of damage detection in asymmetric buildings." Journal of Sound and Vibration. 413, pp. 41-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2017.10.015
Prestress and excitation force identification in a prestressed concrete box–girder bridge
Xiang, Ziru, Chan, Tommy H. T., Thambiratnam, David P. and Nguyen, Andy. 2017. "Prestress and excitation force identification in a prestressed concrete box–girder bridge." Computers and Concrete. 20 (5), pp. 617-625. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2017.20.5.617
Toward effective structural identification of medium-rise building structures
Nguyen, A., Kodikara, K. A. T. L., Chan, T. H. T. and Thambiratnam, D. P.. 2018. "Toward effective structural identification of medium-rise building structures." Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring. 8 (1), pp. 63-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-017-0259-y
Modelling techniques for structural evaluation for bridge assessment
Jamali, Shojaeddin, Chan, Tommy H. T., Nguyen, Andy and Thambiratnam, David P.. 2018. "Modelling techniques for structural evaluation for bridge assessment." Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring. 8 (2), pp. 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-018-0269-4
Damage detection in asymmetric buildings using vibration-based techniques
Wang, Y., Thambiratnam, D. P., Chan, T. H. T. and Nguyen, A.. 2018. "Damage detection in asymmetric buildings using vibration-based techniques." Structural Control and Health Monitoring. 25 (5), pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/stc.2148
Human motion analysis from UAV video
Perera, Asanka G., Law, Yee We, Al-Naji, Ali and Chahl, Javaan. 2018. "Human motion analysis from UAV video." International Journal of Intelligent Unmanned Systems. 6 (2), pp. 69-92. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJIUS-10-2017-0012
Human detection and motion analysis from a quadrotor UAV
Perera, Asanka G., Al-Naji, Ali, Law, Al-Naji, Ali and Chahl, Javaan. 2018. "Human detection and motion analysis from a quadrotor UAV." AEROTECH VII - Sustainability in Aerospace Engineering and Technology. Putrajaya, Malaysia 07 - 08 Aug 2018 United Kingdom. IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/405/1/012003
Remote measurement of cardiopulmonary signal using an unmanned aerial vehicle
Al-Naji, Ali, Perera, Asanka G. and Chahl, Javaan. 2018. "Remote measurement of cardiopulmonary signal using an unmanned aerial vehicle ." AEROTECH VII - Sustainability in Aerospace Engineering and Technology. Putrajaya, Malaysia 07 - 08 Aug 2018 United Kingdom. IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/405/1/012001
Human pose and path estimation from aerial video using dynamic classifier selection
Perera, Asanka G., Law, Yee Wei and Chahl, Javaan. 2018. "Human pose and path estimation from aerial video using dynamic classifier selection." Cognitive Computation. 10 (6), pp. 1019-1041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12559-018-9577-6
Remote monitoring of cardiorespiratory signals from a hovering unmanned aerial vehicle
Al-Naji, Ali, Perera, Asanka G. and Chahl, Javaan. 2017. "Remote monitoring of cardiorespiratory signals from a hovering unmanned aerial vehicle." BioMedical Engineering OnLine. 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-017-0395-y