The construction of gender identity in elite sports: a mixed methods exploration

PhD Thesis


Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2001. The construction of gender identity in elite sports: a mixed methods exploration. PhD Thesis Doctor of Philosophy. University of Southern Queensland.
Title

The construction of gender identity in elite sports: a mixed methods exploration

TypePhD Thesis
Authors
AuthorLamont-Mills, Andrea
SupervisorGrace Pretty
Institution of OriginUniversity of Southern Queensland
Qualification NameDoctor of Philosophy
Number of Pages444
Year2001
Abstract

[Abstract]: This dissertation explored how gender identity is constructed in elite sport. I argued that sport is a unique socio-cultural context where gender category membership, may be enacted both the same and differently than in other contexts. Historically, most gender stereotyping, gender trait, and gender identity research in sport (e.g., Andre & Holland, 1995; Csizma, Wittig, & Schurr, 1988; Harris & Griffin, 1997) has employed researcher-generated constructions of masculinity and femininity, or non-sporting constructions of masculinity and femininity. By failing to define and construct gender from the participants' perspective, researchers have imposed their own preconceived cultural standards of gender upon participants (Doyle & Paludi, 1995). To generalise these preconceptions to other groups is to do so without consideration of cultural diversity and possible difference (Doyle & Paludi). Therefore, previous sport gender studies that have used these methodologies are tenuous as contemporary and future models upon which to base gender work.
Further, gender identity research that has utilised a discursive psychological theoretical and methodological framework has produced findings that question the empirical validity of current models of gender in sport and exercise psychology (see Wetherell & Edley, 1999). These discursive results suggest that gender is a multifaceted, multidimensional, multifactorial, negotiated, dynamic, and variable concept (Wetherell & Edley, 1999). Therefore, two research questions were addressed by this dissertation: 1) How do participants perceive themselves in terms of gender-related characteristics?; and 2) How do elite sportswomen and sportsmen enact and negotiate membership of idiosyncratic, gender, and gender identity in sport categories?
In order to address these research questions two self-report measures were utilised, the 24-item Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) (Spence & Helmreich, 1978) and a semi-structured interview concerning identity prescription. Thirty-eight elite level coaches (19 women, 19 men) and 37 elite level athletes (19 women, 18 men) voluntarily participated in this study. The interview data were analysed using two divergent theoretical and analytical frameworks, an a-priori content analysis (imposition of the PAQ items on interview responses) and a discursive psychological framework.
The results of the PAQ analysis suggest that sportswomen and sportsmen perceive themselves differently in relation to gender-related characteristics. Differences which did not reach statistical significance, were found between male and female responses on the PAQ Masculine (M), Feminine (F), and Masculine-Feminine (M-F) sub-scales. Statistically significant differences were found with reference to PAQ classification, with women more likely to be classified as Androgynous and men as Masculine. There were no statistically significant occupational differences on either PAQ sub-scale responding or PAQ classification. The above results call into question the underlying assumptions and theoretical foundations of the PAQ.
The a-priori content analysis also revealed a number of contradictory findings with reference to the assumptions and foundations of the PAQ scale. For example, women were more likely to utilise the PAQ M item Self-confident to describe themselves as gendered individuals than men. Whereas men were more likely to use the PAQ F item Gentle than women in the same identity category. Further, Feminine classified people were more likely to use the PAQ M-F item Very Dominant when describing themselves as women/men in elite sport. Therefore, the PAQ and a priori results cast doubt on the empirical utility of two factor models of gender to understand gender as a complex and dynamic construct. The results suggest that elite sport might be a context where gender is distinctively enacted and constituted.
In order to determine how gender identity is enacted and negotiated in competitive sport, the interview data were analysed using a discursive psychological approach. Discursive psychology focuses upon how representations are constructed within, and constitutive of, the social practices that are found in language. In this respect, gender is conceptualised as being negotiated within the local interactive context where culture, history, and social contexts are reflected within discursive practices. In Research Question Two, interest centred on the interpretative repertoires and reflexive positions that participants used to prescribe themselves as idiosyncratic, gendered, and gendered individuals in sport.
Interpretative repertoires are recurrent, culturally familiar global discursive patterns that individuals use to make sense of themselves in conversations (Wetherell, 1998; Wetherell & Potter, 1988). Reflexive positions are offered as an alternative discursive notion to the social psychological concept of role (Davies & Harré, 1990). A person is not considered as an individual free agent, but rather as the subject of the interaction, where the individual takes up or is placed in various subject positions depending upon the discourse and the particular social context in which the individual interacts. Thus we make sense of ourselves, or position ourselves, within social interactions through the cultural and personal resources (interpretative repertoires) that are made available to us in our discourse.
Overall, the results of the discursive analysis suggest that participants enacted something gender scholars would call Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny when prescribing themselves across the three identity categories. That is, participants used gendered, culturally familiar discursive patterns (interpretative repertoires) to make sense of themselves across identity categories. However, participants were also able to draw upon non gender-related discourses during this process. Thus, identity work was characterised by variability, inconsistency, and contradiction. Different interpretative repertoires and reflexive positions were used by participants both within and across identity categories.
Therefore, the use of gender-related interpretative repertoires differed according to the identity that was being scripted up. Thus participants were able to be Masculine, Androgynous, and Feminine, and position themselves differently depending upon the identity that was being prescribed and the local interaction context. That is, participants used interpretative repertoires to talk one way, but walk another (e.g., Androgynous interpretative repertoire, Hegemonic Masculine reflexive position) that was specific to the social, historical, and cultural context, and the local interactional context. The above results call into question Spence and Helmreich’s (1978) postulation that there is one Masculine and one Feminine identity. Indeed the results are suggestive of many Masculinities and many Femininities.
Participants also deployed specific discursive strategies that incorporated the action and epistemological orientation of their talk when constituting their identities. That is, they worked to increase the facticity of their talk and worked to align themselves with certain positions (e.g., Hegemonic Masculine man) and not others (Feminine man) through their discourse. Thus gendered talk carried with it gendered ideological practices that participants used to reproduce, reinforce, and challenge the current gender order.
The above results, combined with the disparity between the PAQ results and the a-priori content analysis, suggest that earlier and current models of gender that conceptualise gender as a multifaceted, multidimensional, bi-directional but static concept are probably not representative of how people do gender in everyday talk. The results support extant theory that gender identities might exist rather than a single gender identity. Overall, the results of this dissertation -suggest that elite sportswomen and sportsmen enact and negotiate membership of identity categories that is specific to the local interactional context, as well as the cultural, social (i.e., sport), and historical context. I infer, therefore, that current static gender models in sport and exercise psychology may not fully capture the complexity of gender in everyday talk and that alternative ways of understanding gender in sport are needed.

Keywordsgender identity; elite sports; sport; methods
ANZSRC Field of Research 2020520107. Sport and exercise psychology
Byline AffiliationsDepartment of Psychology
Permalink -

https://research.usq.edu.au/item/9y618/the-construction-of-gender-identity-in-elite-sports-a-mixed-methods-exploration

Download files


Published Version
Lamont-Mills_2001_whole.pdf
File access level: Anyone

  • 4492
    total views
  • 1283
    total downloads
  • 4
    views this month
  • 1
    downloads this month

Export as

Related outputs

Strike 3 … Out! Investigating Pre-Game Moods, Performance, and Mental Health of Softball Umpires
Houison, Ronald J., Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Kotiw, Michael and Terry, Peter C.. 2024. "Strike 3 … Out! Investigating Pre-Game Moods, Performance, and Mental Health of Softball Umpires." Sports. 12 (2). https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020050
Feeling the Stress: Salivary Cortisol Responses of Softball Umpires during National Championships
Houison, Ronald J, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Kotiw, Michael and Terry, Peter C.. 2024. "Feeling the Stress: Salivary Cortisol Responses of Softball Umpires during National Championships." Sports. 12 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12050128
Fluidity in capability: Longitudinal assessments of suicide capability using ecological momentary assessments
Bayliss, Luke T., Hughes, Christopher D., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and du Plessis, Carol. 2024. "Fluidity in capability: Longitudinal assessments of suicide capability using ecological momentary assessments." Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 54 (1), pp. 138-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.13025
Cross-Cultural Validation of the Malaysian Mood Scale and Tests of Between-Group Mood Differences
Lew, Philip Chun Foong, Parsons-Smith, Renée L., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Terry, Peter C.. 2023. "Cross-Cultural Validation of the Malaysian Mood Scale and Tests of Between-Group Mood Differences ." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (4), pp. 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043348
Exploring predictors of and barriers to online prostate cancer community use: A cross‐sectional survey of users and non‐users
Pyle, Denise, Tehan, Gerry, Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Chambers, Suzanne K.. 2021. "Exploring predictors of and barriers to online prostate cancer community use: A cross‐sectional survey of users and non‐users." Psycho-Oncology: journal of the psychological, social and behavioral dimensions of cancer. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.5867
Online suicidal thoughts and/or behaviours talk: A scoping review protocol
Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Bayliss, Luke T. and Christensen, Steven A.. 2022. "Online suicidal thoughts and/or behaviours talk: A scoping review protocol." PLoS One. 17 (10), p. e0276776. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276776
Suicide capability within the ideation-to-action framework: A systematic scoping review
Bayliss, Luke T., Christensen, Steven, Lamont-Mills, Andrea and du Plessis, Carol. 2022. "Suicide capability within the ideation-to-action framework: A systematic scoping review." PLoS One. 17 (10), p. e0276070. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276070
“I Want to Be Stepping in More” - Professional Online Forum Moderators' Experiences of Supporting Individuals in a Suicide Crisis
Perry, Amanda, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, du Preez, Jan and du Plessis, Carol. 2022. "“I Want to Be Stepping in More” - Professional Online Forum Moderators' Experiences of Supporting Individuals in a Suicide Crisis ." Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13, pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863509
Suicide capacity within the ideation-to-action framework: a scoping review protocol
Bayliss, Luke T., Lamont-Mills, Andrea, du Plessis, Carol and Morgan, Talia. 2021. "Suicide capacity within the ideation-to-action framework: a scoping review protocol." BMJ Open. 11 (2). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043649
Beyond criticism of ethics review boards: strategies for engaging research communities and enhancing ethical review processes
Hickey, Andrew, Davis, Samantha, Farmer, Will, Dawidowicz, Julianna, Moloney, Clint, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Carniel, Jess, Pillay, Yosheen, Akenson, David, Bromdal, Annette, Gehrmann, Richard, Mills, Dean, Kolbe-Alexander, Tracy, Machin, Tanya, Reich, Suzanne, Southey, Kim, Crowley-Cyr, Lynda, Watanabe, Taiji, Davenport, Josh, ..., Maxwell, Jacinta. 2021. "Beyond criticism of ethics review boards: strategies for engaging research communities and enhancing ethical review processes." Journal of Academic Ethics. 20, pp. 549-567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-021-09430-4
Suicidal behaviours and moderator support in online health communities: a scoping review
Perry, Amanda, Pyle, Denise, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, du Plessis, Carol and du Preez, Jan. 2021. "Suicidal behaviours and moderator support in online health communities: a scoping review." BMJ Open. 11 (6). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047905
Researching real-world psychological practice: psychology consultations as data [Online case study]
Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Christensen, Steven. 2018. "Researching real-world psychological practice: psychology consultations as data [Online case study]." SAGE research methods: cases part 2. SAGE Publications Ltd.
Psychology, Counselling, and Psychotherapy Consultation Digital Communication Talk Bank
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. Psychology, Counselling, and Psychotherapy Consultation Digital Communication Talk Bank. Ipswich. https://doi.org/10.26192/srpq-2384
A scoping review of the characteristics and benefits of online prostate cancer communities
Pyle, Denise, Perry, Amanda, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Tehan, Gerry and Chambers, Suzanne K.. 2021. "A scoping review of the characteristics and benefits of online prostate cancer communities." Psycho-Oncology: journal of the psychological, social and behavioral dimensions of cancer. 30 (5), pp. 659-668. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.5618
Suicidal behaviours and moderator support in online health communities: protocol for a scoping review
Perry, Amanda, Lamont-Mills, Andrea, du Plessis, Carol, du Preez, Jan and Pyle, Denise. 2020. "Suicidal behaviours and moderator support in online health communities: protocol for a scoping review." BMJ Open. 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034162
Doing suicidal on the internet: a discursive analysis of online suicide forums
McLean, Suzanne and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2017. "Doing suicidal on the internet: a discursive analysis of online suicide forums." 2017 National Suicide Prevention Conference: Relationships, Resilience & Respect (NSPC17). Brisbane, Australia 25 - 29 Jul 2017
The impact of learning technologies on workload
Ryan, Yoni, Hinton, Leone and Lamont Mills, Andrea. 2011. "The impact of learning technologies on workload." Williams, Gary, Statham, Peta, Brown, Noel and Cleland, B. (ed.) 28th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE 2011). Hobart, Australia 04 - 07 Dec 2011 Australia.
Computer aided qualitative research: a NUD*IST 4 approach
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2005. "Computer aided qualitative research: a NUD*IST 4 approach." Tenenbaum, Gershon and Driscoll, Marcy P. (ed.) Methods of research in sport sciences: quantitative and qualitative approaches. Oxford, U.K.. Myer & Myer Sport. pp. 741-753
The production of the 'normal child': exploring co-constructions of parents, children and therapists
Brownlow, Charlotte and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2015. "The production of the 'normal child': exploring co-constructions of parents, children and therapists." O'Reilly, Michelle and Lester, Jessica Nina (ed.) The Palgrave handbook of child mental health: discourse and conversation studies. United Kingdom. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 233-251
A critical consideration of the use of therapeutic recordings in the training and professional development of psychologists
Lamont-Mills, Andrea, Christensen, Steven and Brownlow, Charlotte. 2014. "A critical consideration of the use of therapeutic recordings in the training and professional development of psychologists." Journal of Critical Psychology, Counselling, and Psychotherapy. 14 (4), pp. 276-285.
Computer-aided qualitative research: a user's perspective
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2010. "Computer-aided qualitative research: a user's perspective." Haag, Herbet (ed.) Research methodology for sport and exercise sciences: a comprehensive introduction for study and research, 2nd ed.. Berlin, Germany. Logos Verlag. pp. 268-298
Introducing limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: psychologist-driven or client-centred?
Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Christensen, Steven A.. 2010. "Introducing limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: psychologist-driven or client-centred?" Australian Journal of Counselling Psychology.
Examining workload models in online and blended teaching
Tynan, Belinda, Ryan, Yoni and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2015. "Examining workload models in online and blended teaching." British Journal of Educational Technology. 46 (1), pp. 5-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12111
Out of hours: online and blended learning workload in Australian universities
Ryan, Yoni, Tynan, Belinda and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2014. "Out of hours: online and blended learning workload in Australian universities." Picciano, Anthony G., Dziuban, Charles D. and Graham, Charles R. (ed.) Blended learning: research perspectives, v. 2. Abingdon, Oxon. United Kingdom. Routledge. pp. 268-283
Out of hours: final report of the project e-teaching leadership: planning and implementing a benefits-oriented costs model for technology enhanced learning
Tynan, Belinda, Ryan, Yoni, Hinton, Leone and Lamont Mills, Andrea. 2012. Out of hours: final report of the project e-teaching leadership: planning and implementing a benefits-oriented costs model for technology enhanced learning. Canberra, Australia. Australian Learning and Teaching Council Limited.
Examining limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: concerns and considerations
Lamont-Mills, A. and Christensen, S.. 2008. "Examining limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: concerns and considerations." Mrowinski, Vicky and Voudouris, Nicholas (ed.) 43rd Annual Australian Psychological Society Conference (APS 2008): Psychology Leading Change. Hobart, Australia 23 - 27 Sep 2008 Australia. Taylor & Francis.
‘‘I have never taken performance enhancing drugs and I never will’’: drug discourse in the Shane Warne case
Lamont-Mills, A. and Christensen, S.. 2008. "‘‘I have never taken performance enhancing drugs and I never will’’: drug discourse in the Shane Warne case." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. 18 (2), pp. 250-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2007.00639.x
Sport psychology for regional, rural, and remote pre-elite adolescent athletes
Christensen, Steven A., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Annis-Brown, Peter. 2008. "Sport psychology for regional, rural, and remote pre-elite adolescent athletes." Victorian Sport Psychology Conference (APS 2008). Melbourne, Australia 24 - 25 Jan 2008 Melbourne, Australia.
Athletic identity and its relationship to sport participation levels
Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Christensen, Steven A.. 2006. "Athletic identity and its relationship to sport participation levels." Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 9 (6), pp. 472-478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2006.04.004
Examining limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: concerns and considerations
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2008. "Examining limits of confidentiality in real-life consultations: concerns and considerations." CAMCA 2008: Branching Out. Brisbane, Australia 05 - 07 Nov 2008 Brisbane, Australia.
Justifying the visit: patient problem presntation and physiotherapists' responses
Lamont-Mills, A., Schloss, J. and Epsley, S.. 2007. "Justifying the visit: patient problem presntation and physiotherapists' responses." Bartram, C. (ed.) MPA 2007: 15th Biennial Musculosketal Physiotherapy Australia Conference: Science in Motion. Cairns, Australia 04 - 08 Oct 2007 Sydney, Australia.
Giving primacy to pain in the physiotherapy consultation: how is this acheived between patient and physiotherapist?
Lamont-Mills, A., South, S. and Epsley, S.. 2007. "Giving primacy to pain in the physiotherapy consultation: how is this acheived between patient and physiotherapist?" Bartram, C. (ed.) MPA 2007: 15th Biennial Musculosketal Physiotherapy Australia Conference: Science in Motion. Cairns, Australia 04 - 08 Oct 2007 Sydney, Australia.
Opening the consultation: how is this achieved between patient and physiotherapist?
Lamont-Mills, A., Schloss, J. and Epsley, S.. 2007. "Opening the consultation: how is this achieved between patient and physiotherapist?" Bartram, C. (ed.) MPA 2007: 15th Biennial Musculosketal Physiotherapy Australia Conference: Science in Motion. Cairns, Australia 04 - 08 Oct 2007 Sydney, Australia.
Beginning evidence-based practice for teaching, research, and non-clinical psychology
Christensen, Steven A. and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2007. "Beginning evidence-based practice for teaching, research, and non-clinical psychology." Moore, Kate (ed.) 42nd Australian Psychological Society Annual Conference 2007. Brisbane, Australia 25 - 29 Sep 2007 Melbourne, Australia.
Revisiting how sport psychology can best be illustrated
Christensen, Steven A. and Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2008. "Revisiting how sport psychology can best be illustrated." Victorian Sport Psychology Conference (APS 2008). Melbourne, Australia 24 - 25 Jan 2008 Melbourne, Australia.
Sport psychology as mental equipment
Christensen, Steven A., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Annis-Brown, Peter. 2007. "Sport psychology as mental equipment." APS College of Sport Psychologists (SA Branch) Professional Development Presentation. Adelaide, Australia 24 Jan 2007 Melbourne, Australia.
Sex, gender and gender identity in Australian sport
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 1998. Sex, gender and gender identity in Australian sport. Toowoomba, Australia. University of Southern Queensland.
Providing sport psychology in regional, rural, and remote New South Wales
Christensen, Steven A., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Annis-Brown, Peter. 2006. "Providing sport psychology in regional, rural, and remote New South Wales." Toowoomba and Darling Downs Physical Education Teachers Professional Development Workshop 2006. Toowoomba, Australia 10 Jul 2006
SASI psyche in 21st century: makeover or renovation?
Christensen, Steven A., Lamont-Mills, Andrea and Annis-Brown, Peter. 2007. "SASI psyche in 21st century: makeover or renovation?" South Australian Sports Institute Coach and Sport Science Professional Development Program (2007). Adelaide, Australia Toowoomba, Australia.
Computer-aided qualitative research: A NUD*IST 6 approach
Lamont-Mills, Andrea. 2004. "Computer-aided qualitative research: A NUD*IST 6 approach." Haag, Herbert (ed.) Research methodology for sport and exercise science: a comprehensive introduction for study and research. Reinhein, Germany. Hofmann. pp. 288-298
A discursive psychological approach to the construction of gender identity in elite sport
Lamont-Mills, A.. 2001. "A discursive psychological approach to the construction of gender identity in elite sport." 36th Annual Conference of The Australian Psychological Society. Adelaide, Australia 20 - 24 Sep 2001 United Kingdom. Taylor & Francis.