In situ Thermoset Cure Sensing: A Review of Correlation Methods

Article


Hall, Molly, Zeng, Xuesen, Shelley, Tristan and Schubel, Peter. 2022. "In situ Thermoset Cure Sensing: A Review of Correlation Methods." Polymers. 14 (15), pp. 1-29. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14152978
Article Title

In situ Thermoset Cure Sensing: A Review of Correlation Methods

ERA Journal ID201391
Article CategoryArticle
AuthorsHall, Molly (Author), Zeng, Xuesen (Author), Shelley, Tristan (Author) and Schubel, Peter (Author)
Journal TitlePolymers
Journal Citation14 (15), pp. 1-29
Article Number2978
Number of Pages29
Year2022
PublisherMDPI AG
Place of PublicationSwitzerland
ISSN2073-4360
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14152978
Web Address (URL)https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/14/15/2978
Abstract

Thermoset polymer composites have increased in use across multiple industries, with recent applications consisting of high-complexity and large-scale parts. As applications expand, the emphasis on accurate process-monitoring techniques has increased, with a variety of in situ cure-monitoring sensors being investigated by various research teams. To date, a wide range of data analysis techniques have been used to correlate data collected from thermocouple, dielectric, ultrasonic, and fibre-optic sensors to information on the material cure state. The methods used in existing publications have not been explicitly differentiated between, nor have they been directly compared. This paper provides a critical review of the different data collection and cure state correlation methods for these sensor types. The review includes details of the relevant sensor configurations and governing equations, material combinations, data verification techniques, identified potential research gaps, and areas of improvement. A wide range of both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods are discussed for each sensing technology. Critical analysis is provided on the capability and limitations of these methods to directly identify cure state information for the materials under investigation. This paper aims to provide the reader with sufficient background on available analysis techniques to assist in selecting the most appropriate method for the application.

Keywordscomposite manufacturing; thermosetting polymers; cure behaviour; process monitoring; in situ cure monitoring; sensors
Related Output
Is part ofThrough-thickness dielectric sensing for thermoset composite cure analysis and process validation
ANZSRC Field of Research 2020400101. Aerospace materials
401609. Polymers and plastics
401602. Composite and hybrid materials
Public Notes

This article is part of a UniSQ Thesis by publication. See Related Output.

Byline AffiliationsCentre for Future Materials
Institution of OriginUniversity of Southern Queensland
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https://research.usq.edu.au/item/q7920/in-situ-thermoset-cure-sensing-a-review-of-correlation-methods

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Xiao, Xueliang, Endruweit, Andreas, Zeng, Xuesen, Hu, Jinlian and Long, Andrew. 2015. "Through-thickness permeability study of orthogonal and angle-interlock woven fabrics." Journal of Materials Science. 50 (3), pp. 1257-1266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-014-8683-4
Assessing the effect of fibre extraction processes on the strength of flax fibre reinforcement
Zeng, Xuesen, Mooney, Sacha J. and Sturrock, Craig J.. 2015. "Assessing the effect of fibre extraction processes on the strength of flax fibre reinforcement." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 70, pp. 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2014.12.004
Numerical prediction of in-plane permeability for multilayer woven fabrics with manufacture-induced deformation
Zeng, Xuesen, Endruweit, Andreas, Brown, Louise P. and Long, Andrew C.. 2015. "Numerical prediction of in-plane permeability for multilayer woven fabrics with manufacture-induced deformation." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 77, pp. 266-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.03.027
Dynamic response of orthogonal three-dimensional woven carbon composite beams under soft impact
Turner, P., Liu, T. and Zeng, X.. 2015. "Dynamic response of orthogonal three-dimensional woven carbon composite beams under soft impact." Journal of Applied Mechanics. 82 (12). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4031455
Transverse permeability of dry fiber preforms manufactured by automated fiber placement
Aziz, A. R., Ali, M. A., Zeng, X., Umer, R., Schubel, P. and Cantwell, W. J.. 2017. "Transverse permeability of dry fiber preforms manufactured by automated fiber placement." Composites Science and Technology. 152, pp. 57-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2017.09.011
Cost analysis in using non-crimp fabric composites in engineering applications
Schubel, P.. 2011. "Cost analysis in using non-crimp fabric composites in engineering applications." Lomov, Stepan (ed.) Non-crimp fabric composites: manufacturing, properties and applications. United Kingdom. Woodhead Publishing Limited. pp. 494-510
Can flax replace E-glass in small wind turbine blades?
Shah, Darshil U. and Schubel, Peter J.. 2013. "Can flax replace E-glass in small wind turbine blades?" JEC Composites Magazine. 50 (78), pp. 34-37.
Automated geometric modelling of textile structures
Lin, Hua, Zeng, Xuesen, Sherburn, Martin, Long, Andrew C. and Clifford, Mike J.. 2011. "Automated geometric modelling of textile structures." Textile Research Journal. 82 (16), pp. 1689-1702. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517511418562
Influence of boundary conditions on the ballistic performance of high-strength fabric targets
Zeng, X. S., Shim, V. P. W. and Tan, V. B. C.. 2006. "Influence of boundary conditions on the ballistic performance of high-strength fabric targets ." International Journal of Impact Engineering. 2 (1-4), pp. 631-642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2005.06.011
Modelling inter-yarn friction in woven fabric armour
Zeng, X. S., Tan, V. B. C. and Shim, V. P. W.. 2006. "Modelling inter-yarn friction in woven fabric armour." International Journal for Numerical Methods in Biomedical Engineering. 66 (8), pp. 1309-1330. https://doi.org/10.1002/nme.1596
Multiscale modeling of polymers – the pseudo amorphous cell
Tan, V. B. C., Zeng, X. S., Deng, M., Lim, K. M. and Tay, T. E.. 2008. "Multiscale modeling of polymers – the pseudo amorphous cell." Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 197 (6-8), pp. 536-554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2007.08.006
Multiscale modeling of combined deterministic and stochastic fabric non-uniformity for realistic resin injection simulation
Endruweit, A., Zeng, X. and Long, A. C .. 2014. "Multiscale modeling of combined deterministic and stochastic fabric non-uniformity for realistic resin injection simulation ." Advanced Manufacturing: Polymer & Composites Science. 1 (1), pp. 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1179/2055035914Y.0000000002
Advanced geometry modelling for 3D woven fabrics in composites processing and performance analysis
Zeng, Xuesen, Brown, Louise P., Endruweit, Andreas, Matveev, Mikhail and Long, Andrew C.. 2013. "Advanced geometry modelling for 3D woven fabrics in composites processing and performance analysis." JEC Composites Magazine. 50 (82), pp. 55-60.
Large deformation modelling of tight woven fabric under high air pressure
Xiao, Xueliang, Long, Andrew, Lin, Hua and Zeng, Xuesen. 2015. "Large deformation modelling of tight woven fabric under high air pressure." Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics. 10 (1), pp. 63-74.
A cost and performance comparison of LRTM and VI for the manufacture of large scale wind turbine blades
Hutchinson, J. R., Schubel, P. J. and Warrior, N. A.. 2011. "A cost and performance comparison of LRTM and VI for the manufacture of large scale wind turbine blades." Renewable Energy. 36 (2), pp. 866-871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2010.07.025
The experimental determination of prepreg tack and dynamic stiffness
Crossley, R. J., Schubel, P. J. and Warrior, N. A.. 2012. "The experimental determination of prepreg tack and dynamic stiffness." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 43 (3), pp. 423-434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.10.014
Cost modelling in polymer composite applications: case study – analysis of existing and automated manufacturing processes for a large wind turbine blade
Schubel, P. J.. 2012. "Cost modelling in polymer composite applications: case study – analysis of existing and automated manufacturing processes for a large wind turbine blade." Composites Part B: Engineering. 43 (3), pp. 953-960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2011.11.036
Hydroxyethylcellulose surface treatment of natural fibres: the new 'twist' in yarn preparation and optimization for composites applicability
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J., Licence, Peter and Clifford, Mike J.. 2012. "Hydroxyethylcellulose surface treatment of natural fibres: the new 'twist' in yarn preparation and optimization for composites applicability." Journal of Materials Science. 47 (6), pp. 2700-2711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-011-6096-1
Modelling the effect of yarn twist on the tensile strength of unidirectional plant fibre yarn composites
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J. and Clifford, Mike J.. 2012. "Modelling the effect of yarn twist on the tensile strength of unidirectional plant fibre yarn composites." Journal of Composite Materials. 47 (4), pp. 425-436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998312440737
Determining the minimum, critical and maximum fibre content for twisted yarn reinforced plant fibre composites
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J., Licence, Peter and Clifford, Mike J.. 2012. "Determining the minimum, critical and maximum fibre content for twisted yarn reinforced plant fibre composites." Composites Science and Technology. 72 (15), pp. 1909-1917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2012.08.005
Fatigue life evaluation of aligned plant fibre composites through S-N curves and constant-life diagrams
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J., Clifford, Mike J. and Licence, Peter. 2013. "Fatigue life evaluation of aligned plant fibre composites through S-N curves and constant-life diagrams." Composites Science and Technology. 74, pp. 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2012.10.015
Wind turbine blade design review
Schubel, P. J. and Crossley, R. J.. 2012. "Wind turbine blade design review." Wind Engineering. 36 (4), pp. 365-388. https://doi.org/10.1260/0309-524X.36.4.365
Wind turbine blade design
Schubel, P. J. and Crossley, R. J.. 2012. "Wind turbine blade design." Energies. 5 (9), pp. 3425-3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5093425
Review of structural health and cure monitoring techniques for large wind turbine blades
Schubel, P. J., Crossley, R. J., Boateng, E. K. G. and Hutchinson, J. R.. 2013. "Review of structural health and cure monitoring techniques for large wind turbine blades." Renewable Energy. 51, pp. 113-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.072
Can flax replace E-glass in structural composites? A small wind turbine blade case study
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J. and Clifford, Mike J.. 2013. "Can flax replace E-glass in structural composites? A small wind turbine blade case study." Composites Part B: Engineering. 52, pp. 172-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.04.027
Mechanical property characterization of aligned plant yarn reinforced thermoset matrix composites manufactured via vacuum infusion
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J., Clifford, Mike J. and Licence, Peter. 2014. "Mechanical property characterization of aligned plant yarn reinforced thermoset matrix composites manufactured via vacuum infusion." Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering. 53 (3), pp. 239-253. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2013.843710
Experimental determination and control of prepreg tack for automated manufacture
Crossley, R. J., Schubel, P. J. and Warrior, N. A.. 2011. "Experimental determination and control of prepreg tack for automated manufacture." Plastics Rubber and Composites. 40 (6-7), pp. 363-368. https://doi.org/10.1179/174328910X12777566997810
The tensile behaviour of off-axis plant fibre composites: an insight on the non-linear stress-strain response
Shah, Darshil U., Schubel, Peter J., Clifford, Mike J. and Licence, Peter. 2012. "The tensile behaviour of off-axis plant fibre composites: an insight on the non-linear stress-strain response." Polymer Composites. 33 (9), pp. 1494-1504. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.22279
Time-temperature equivalence in the tack and dynamic stiffness of polymer prepreg and its application to automated composites manufacturing
Crossley, R. J., Schubel, P. J. and De Focatiis, D. S. A.. 2013. "Time-temperature equivalence in the tack and dynamic stiffness of polymer prepreg and its application to automated composites manufacturing." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 52, pp. 126-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2013.05.002
A coupled structural and flow approach for numerical simulation of the light resin transfer moulding process. II: Fabric permeability and compaction characterisation, model results and a 6-kW wind turbine case study
Hutchinson, J. R. and Schubel, P. J.. 2014. "A coupled structural and flow approach for numerical simulation of the light resin transfer moulding process. II: Fabric permeability and compaction characterisation, model results and a 6-kW wind turbine case study." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 33 (13), pp. 1237-1257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684414527806
A coupled structural and flow approach for numerical simulation of the light resin transfer moulding process. I: Model outline
Hutchinson, J. R., Schubel, P. J. and Said, R.. 2014. "A coupled structural and flow approach for numerical simulation of the light resin transfer moulding process. I: Model outline." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 33 (14), pp. 1332-1338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684414527805
Furan matrix and flax fibre as a sustainable renewable composite: mechanical and fire-resistant properties in comparison to phenol, epoxy and polyester
Crossley, Richard, Schubel, Peter and Stevenson, Anthony. 2014. "Furan matrix and flax fibre as a sustainable renewable composite: mechanical and fire-resistant properties in comparison to phenol, epoxy and polyester." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 33 (1), pp. 58-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684413502108
On recycled carbon fibre composites manufactured through a liquid composite moulding process
Shah, Darshil U. and Schubel, Peter J.. 2016. "On recycled carbon fibre composites manufactured through a liquid composite moulding process." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 35 (7), pp. 533-540. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684415623652
Understanding the buckling behaviour of steered tows in automated dry fibre placement (ADFP)
Matveev, M. Y., Schubel, P. J., Long, A. C. and Jones, I. A.. 2016. "Understanding the buckling behaviour of steered tows in automated dry fibre placement (ADFP)." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 90, pp. 451-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.08.014
Green Composite Materials
Wang, Hao, Schubel, Peter, Yi, Xiaosu, Zhu, Jin, Ulven, Chad and Qiu, Yiping. 2015. "Green Composite Materials." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/487416
Application of wavelet parameters for impact damage detection in plates
Shelley, T. J. and Liew, C. K.. 2013. "Application of wavelet parameters for impact damage detection in plates." Key Engineering Materials. 558, pp. 12-24. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.558.12
Automated Finite Element Modelling of 3D Woven Textiles
Zeng, X. S., Long, A. C., Clifford, M. J., Iniotakis, C., Probst-Schendzielorz, S. and Schmitt, M. W.. 2010. "Automated Finite Element Modelling of 3D Woven Textiles." 3rd World Conference on 3D Fabrics and their Applications. 20 - 21 Apr 2011
CFD Flow Simulation for Impregnation of 3D Woven Reinforcements
Zeng, X., Endruweit, A., Long, A. C. and Clifford, M. J.. 2010. "CFD Flow Simulation for Impregnation of 3D Woven Reinforcements." International Conference on Textile Composites (TEXCOMP). United States. IOP Publishing.
Characterizing and constitutive modelling of aramid fibres at high strain rates
Tan, V. B. C., Zeng, X. S. and Shim, V. P. W.. 2008. "Characterizing and constitutive modelling of aramid fibres at high strain rates ." International Journal of Impact Engineering. 35 (11), pp. 1303-1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2007.07.010
Modelling crimp in woven fabrics subjected to ballistic impact
Tan, V. B. C., Shim, V. P. W. and Zeng, X.. 2005. "Modelling crimp in woven fabrics subjected to ballistic impact." International Journal of Impact Engineering. 32 (1-4), pp. 561-574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2005.06.008